EXPERIENCING THE PRESENCE OF GOD

upon and widely applied to all social, cultural, and political spheres of society. This has led to the development of a new culture in which individuals enjoy freedom of expression, dissent and criticism without any fear or restriction. The following examples may suffice to explain to what extent this essential human right was observed in earlier Muslim societies. Once the Caliph Umar came to a well of the Banu Harithah where he met an outspoken person named Muhammad ibn Maslama. “How do you find me?” he asked Muhammad, “By God, I find you just as I would like you to be and just as it would please any well-wisher to see you. You are good at accumulating money, I see, but you keep your hands clean of it yourself, distributing it equitably to others.” “But,” went on Muhammad ibn Maslama, “If you adopt a crooked course, we will straighten you, just as we straighten swords by placing them in a vice.” At these aggressively critical words, Umar, the second Muslim Caliph, exclaimed: Praise be to God, who has put me among a people who will straighten me if I become crooked. Kanz al-Ummal When Muslims at Medina, with their increasing affluence, began to settle huge dowers on their daughters, Umar, in his capacity as Caliph, ordered that no one should demand or pay a dower that exceeded four hundred dirhams, and that anything in excess of this amount would be confiscated and deposited in the public treasury. After the proclamation of this ordinance, when he came down from the pulpit, a tall, flat-nosed old woman stood up and confidently said: The Quran has set no restrictions on this matter: Umar has no right to set an upper limit to the dowers. She backed up her contention by reciting a relevant verse from the Quran. Umar’s immediate reaction on hearing this was to say: May God, forgive me, everyone knows better than Umar, even this old lady. Tirmidhi, Ahmad With the advent of Islam in the seventh century, however, it was